Children and young people transition from primary to secondary school yearly after summer break, they have to adapt to many changes both personal, environmental and social context including adapting to more impersonal environment, larger buildings, many teachers, larger number of peers including older peers compared to primary school (Van Rens, 2017). According to Department of Education and Early childhood studies (2011), transition refers to period of time that involves adjusting to new roles, identities, relationships, interactions and expecting of both families and children involved. Research has shown that transition from primary to secondary school is the most crucial stage in young people’s educational career advancement, this is because current stage of transition coincides with early onset of adolescent thereby resulting in multiple challenges for both student’s wellbeing and learning (Boone & Demanet, 2020). Researchers within Educational, Developmental and Social Psychology have explored the risk factors associated with transition and the impact of transition on young people’s learning and wellbeing using samples of typically developing children and those with special educational needs. Findings has revealed that while some students adjust well to the new system and experience successful transition, others might experience difficulties in adjusting to transition process thereby resulting in poor transition with either long or short-term impact (Hughes, 2013). Hence this report will be focusing on the risk factors affecting transition and strategies for managing successful transition from primary to secondary school.

Risk Factors affecting transition from primary to secondary:

In exploring impact of transition, research findings have revealed that some students who are considered to be vulnerable due to some certain risk factors are more likely to experience poor transition than others. Some of the risk factors includes students with special educational needs, school connectedness, school climate, personal factors, gender differences, social economic status and parental involvement.

• School connectedness and School Climate: According to Libbey (2004), seven consistent themes has been identified that captures the meaning of school connectedness and this includes, level of support and care from teachers, effective and fair discipline, engagement with both future and current academic progress, student’s sense of belonging and acceptance within a school, participation in extracurricular activities and whether a student likes a school or not (Hebron, 2018). Studies have shown that there is a link between a positive sense of school connectedness and greater engagement, motivation, increased self-esteem and reduced health risk behaviour such as substance misuse, lower levels of suicidality and depression (Joyce & Early, 2014 as cited in Hebron, 2018). Research findings have revealed that transition process might impact children with special educational needs differently as they tend to face more complexities in relation to lower social support and peer victimisation within the school compared to their typically developing peers (Foulder-Hughes, 2014). Using a sample of 57 schools consisting of 28 primary school and 29 secondary schools, Hebron (2017) conducted a longitudinal study to investigate if school connectedness from primary to secondary school differ between young people with Autistic Spectrum Conditions (ASC) and their typically developing peers. Results from this study showed that students with ASC reported lower level of school connectedness than their peers. In regards to school connectedness across transition, results from this study showed that for typically developing young people, there was a decline in level of school connectedness from primary to secondary school at the beginning of the academic year which became stable towards the end of the academic year. This finding was however consistent with findings from other studies which showed that although transition impacts different areas such as school connectedness, this impact is for a short term for most students (Bloyce & Fredickson, 2013). In regards to students with ASC, level of school connectedness increased from end of secondary school to end of first academic year in secondary school which was in contrast to their typically developing peers. However, because this study was a longitudinal study, the influence of other external factors cannot be ignored and schools selected might be better equipped to manage transition.
• Personal factors and Gender differences: Students with low self-esteem, low educational attainment and those who are younger in age tend to experience more anxiety prior to transition. Students with problem behaviour and aggressiveness experience difficulties with transition which in turn affects peer relationship (Vans Rens et al., 2017). Girls are more prone to internalising behaviour such as anxiety, depression and feeling of loneliness whereas boys are prone to externalising behaviour such as aggressiveness and this also affects peer relationship (Hughes, Banks & Terras, 2013). Studies have shown that girls find it easier to make new friends and settle in faster after transition compared to boys (HaneWald, 2013 as cited by Vans Rens et al., 2017). Change et al (1998) also found that while girls with psychological distress experiences an increase in distress only, boys on the other hand with psychological distress experience an increase in level of distress and decline in educational attainment (Vans Rens et al., 2017). This shows that the impact of transition affects girls and boys differently. This is also supported by other studies which have explored gender differences on the impact of transition such as Martinet et al (2011) who also found that in relation to school functions, boys experience greater challenge during transition process than girls (Hanewald, 2013). However, people differ in regards to temperament, personality and how they cope with challenges, therefore their gender might not necessarily be the main reason behind their behaviour. Hence, it is important to consider the impact of individual differences before drawing conclusion on gender differences and its impact on transition.
• Social Economic Status Parental involvement: Research has shown that students from lower economic systems tend to experience more difficulty with transition process compared to their peers from higher social economic status. Studies exploring the impact of social economic status on academic success has shown that children from lower social economic status experience lower academic achievement compared to those from higher social economic status. Further studies have shown that in regards to adjusting to school routines and demands of secondary school, more children from lower social economic status find it difficult to adjust to new routine which in turn affects their ability to settle in well (Evangelou 2008 as cited by Van Rens et al., 2017). However, in applying the knowledge risk and resilience framework (Masten, 2014, it is important to note that students differ individually and although one might come from a lower social economic status, their coping strategies might not necessarily be affected as a result of this as some student might be more resilient than others. Further evidenced have revealed that children from lower social economic status do not get much parental support or participation in their academics (Anderson et al., 2000 as cited in Van Rens et al., 2017). Research into the relationship between parenting and transition has shown students whose parents are supportive and encourage autonomy tend to find transition process easier. Parents have also been shown to help with academic and peer challenges (Vans Rens et al., 2017). Parenting has been found to have an impact on self-control and self regulation which are useful skills that can help assisting adaptations to new school system (Ng-Knight et al, 2016). Studies which have explored the development of self-control revealed that self control is built by interaction between an individual and family environment which in turn influences positive relationships between parents and children (Wills & Dishion, 2004 as cited by Ng et al., 2016). Hence, positive self control is influenced by parenting/family environment which later affects how children adapt to new environment such as new school system. However, it is important to note that more evidence is needed to support the link between parenting and self control as previous research both cross-sectional and longitudinal studies has focused more on younger children (Cecil et al., 2012).

Psychological theory associated with transition

Risk and Resilience Framework: According to Risk and Resilience framework (Masten, 2014), risk has been defined as measurable features an individual or group of people possesses or situations they have been exposed to which is capable of predicting a negative or specific outcome. Some researches have shown that risk is not about certainty but rather is about probability, which implies that not everyone who have been exposed to a given risk factor necessarily experience a negative outcome as some children who have been exposed to a single risk factor may not necessarily suffer from harm compared to those who has been exposed to multiple risk factors (Zolkoski & Bullock, 2012; Evans, Li and Whipple 2013). Resilience on the other hand has been explained as the ability to adapt and recover from a disturbance irrespective of the adversity, challenges and risk a person has been exposed to (Wright, Narayan & Masten, 2013, p 17). According to American Psychological Association (2014), Resisilience has been defined as the process of adapting well in the face of threats, adversity, trauma, stress or tragedy. Although these definitions of risk and resilience are beneficial, they however do not reflect the detailed nature of resilience as resilience can be considered to be very complex and influenced by different factors which can either be psychological, biological, cultural or social factors which interact with one another and determine how an individual responds to a particular traumatic or stressful situation (Southwick et al., 2014). Therefore, in applying risk and resilience theory to school transition, it is important to note that not every child or young person who has been exposed to some certain risk factors might necessarily have their transition process affected negatively. Some children might be exposed to a particular risk factor and the impact can be visible on one aspect of their lives than the other (Bailey & Baines, 2012). Therefore, it is advisable to carefully adopt mulitivariant approach and consider individual differenes when investigating risk factors affecting transition so as to get a proper understanding of overlapping or competing factors and their impact on transition (Bailey & Baines, 2012).

Strategies for managing primary to secondary transition

Given that students are different as well as their coping mechanisms, it is therefore important to have many different strategies and interventions in place to help make transition process easier for every student (Bloyce, J., & Frederickson, 2012). Vans Rens et al (2017) conducted a study reviewing 30 empirical studies which explored the effect of intervention to ease transition process and findings suggest that stake holders including children, parents and schools play a vital role in improving the challenges associated with transition process. In addressing the key issues associated with transition, studies have drawn knowledge from psychological theories to test out the implications of interventions strategy to manage transition. Using the knowledge of cognitive and behavioural models, it is believed that anxiety is a product of maladaptive core belief individuals have about themselves and their environment. Hence, organising talking therapy for students in form of one-to-one meeting with assigned teachers or group discussions can help in correcting as well as adjusting any unrealistic and maladaptive concerns.

Using behavioural model, Skinner (1974) developed a system of operant conditioning which involves a system of positive and negative reinforcement (reward or punishment) to achieve a desired result in terms of positive behaviour. As it is believed that fear is what triggers anxiety relating to transition which is strengthened by avoidance is a form of negative reinforcement. Therefore, exposing students gradually to face their fears and anxiety by organising school visits such as open days, induction, and taster sessions prior to transition can help alleviate or reduce their fears towards secondary school to help prepare them for transition process (Neal, 2016).

In regards to the role of parents in helping to manage primary to secondary transition, studies have shown that children have a smooth transition from primary to secondary school if their parents remain a constant support, monitor their activities and intervene positively (Hanewald 2013). Hence, collaboration between parents and schools in regards to information sharing about student’s individual needs, schools’ expectations and information support will go a long way in making transition process easier for students (Neal, 2016).

Conclusion

In summary, transition from primary to secondary school is seen as the most crucial stage in children and young people’s lives as it coincides with early onset of adolescent which make the process quite stressful (Boone, 2020). Although some students find it easier to cope and adjust to new environment and demands of secondary school, others might find adjusting to the new system very challenging due to different reasons ranging from personal factors down to environmental influence. Research findings have revealed that poor transition can have a short or long term impact on student’s learning, mental health and wellbeing (Waters et al.,2012). Research within Educational, Developmental and Social psychology have explored the risk factors associated with transition as well as strategies and interventions to help manage successful transition (Neal, 2016). Hence, knowledge of psychological theories such as risk and resilience framework and behavioural model has provided guide in understanding each student individual needs as well as to offer assessable strategies and intervention that can help make primary to secondary school transition process easier for students.