Attachment relationship is defined as a sustaining emotional bond between a child and a primary care giver (also known as the main attachment figure) with whom the child uses as a safe base to explore his or her environment (Ainsworth, 1989). Attachment has been defined in several ways by various researchers, but the most common concept similar to all the definitions is that attachment is a crucial element for normal development in humans (Malekpour, 2007). Attachment theory was established based on a collaborative work between John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth (Ainsworth and Bowlby, 1991). Extracting from other concepts such as developmental psychology, ethology, cybernetics, psychoanalysis and information processing, Bowlby came up with the basics of attachment theory (Bretherton, 1992). Bowlby (1988) suggests that humans are born with the natural tendency to form bonds with an attachment figure which is necessary for healthy growth and mental development in later life. The main principle of attachment theory states that the quality of attachment a child has with his or her primary care giver has an impact on the child’s later relationships and social interaction (Sroufe, Egeland, & Carlson, 1999). Ainsworth and Bell (1970) developed a measurement for attachment types between a child and their primary caregiver called the strange situation test. Using this measurement in Ganda study (1967) and Baltimore Project (1969), two main attachment types were found which includes secure and insecure attachment, with insecure attachment subdivided into three other categories including Insecure-avoidant, Insecure-ambiguous/ambivalent and disorganized attachment (Bretherton,1992). Hence this essay will be evaluating the evidence on how early attachment experiences affects later relationships in regards to peer and romantic relationships.

According to Bowlby (1973, 1980), the nature of attachment relationship a child has with their primary care giver is what results in beliefs and expectations (also known as the internal working model) which the child develops about self, relationships and the world (Malekpour, 2013; Kõiv, 2012). Bowlby (1951) states that a child acquires the ability for self-regulation during the early years and the primary care giver is the child’s super-ego and ego at this stage (Bretherton, 1992). The development of ego and super-ego are thus considered to be very crucial in the child’s primary human relationship. Studies has shown that a child who is securely attached to a care giver is more likely to develop healthy peer relationship in future (Schneider, Atkinson, & Tardif, 2001). Children who has experienced a secure attachment relationship have a primary care giver that are sensitive and responsive to the child’s needs. This care giver also recognizes and respects the child’s desire for protection and comfort as well as instantaneously allows the child to explore his or her environment independently. This results in the child developing an internal working model of self as reliant and valued as they then tend to enter into new relationship with attractive skills which makes them to be likable by their peers. Due to the positive early attachment relationship a securely attached child has experienced, they then grow up to be able to trust and build healthy relationship with others in the future (Sroufe et al, 1999). However, a child who is insecurely attached has caregivers who are insensitive to their needs which results in the child developing an internal working model of self as incompetent and worthless (Bretherton, 1992). The intensity of Insecure attachment type varies depending on the history of caregiving the child has experienced. Children can be insecure avoidant, insecure ambivalent or insecure disorganized. Insecure avoidant children are children who have experienced caregivers who were rejecting which make them tend to expect others in the future to be rejecting towards them and as such they can be aggressive in their attitude and this makes peers exclude them socially (Sroufe, 2005; Sroufe et al., 1999; Ojanen & Perry, 2007). Insecure ambivalent children are children who have experienced caregiving that was inconsistent; hence, they tend to exhibit behaviour that may appear manipulative such as relational aggression so as to provoke responses. On the other hand, insecure disorganized children often have caregivers who were either abusive, neglectful or depressed; hence, they tend to withdraw or act aggressively in social situations (Jacobvitz, Leon, & Hazen, 2006)

Studies has shown that children who are securely attached to their care givers in their early childhood are more competent socially (Abraham & Kerns, 2013). Lieberman (1977) investigated attachment and peer relationships in pre-schoolers (3 years old, N = 40) using laboratory based test and home visits. Findings from this study showed a positive correlation between attachment relationship with primary care giver and peer experience, as measures of peer competence significantly correlated with maternal attitudes towards the child. This study was supported by West, Mathews & Kerns (2013) study, whose findings showed that first grade teachers reported a higher peer liking in children who were securely attached in their first three years of life (Seibert & Kerns, 2015). Lucas- Thompson and Clarke-Stewart (2007) findings also revealed that the security of attachment at 24 months is linked to the quality of friendship in the fourth grade. Furthermore, Schneider et al (2001) conducted a study using meta-analysis to investigate the relationship between peer relationship and attachment type and findings from this study showed that securely attached children were more socially competent and had a higher friendship quality with their peers. On the other hand, Granot and Mayseless (2001) study revealed a higher level of peer rejection in disorganized and avoidant children during middle childhood as they tend to exhibit aggressive and hostile behaviours towards their peers. They also found that teachers rated children who were ambivalently attached to be less socially skilful than secure children. However, most of these studies that researched the effect of attachment relationship focused more on either aggression, internalizing or externalizing of behaviour and ignored other aspects of peer relationship.

Other studies have also shown that social competence can be influenced by peer interaction. Lewis and Rosenblum (1975) argued that peer interaction also play a vital role in a child’s development of social competence as much as or even more than an adult will do for the child. The level of peer interaction a child experiences can enhance the child’s social competence, as children can easily be compelled to adopt strategies that is useful for their social development by their association with peers. This notion was supported by Harlow and Suomi (1972) study using Rhesus monkeys whose findings revealed that there was reduction in delinquent behaviour and improvement in social behaviour in 6 months old isolated monkeys when exposed to other monkeys who were 3 months younger than themselves with primitive behaviours, however it is difficult to generalize findings from studies using animals to humans, as humans are considered to be more intellectually and mentally advanced than other animals.
The study of adult relationship has also extended to intimate and romantic relationships (Weiss & Duncan, 1992). Some research evidence has shown that people are more likely to end up in a romantic relationship with a partner that affirm their beliefs about attachment relationships based on their early attachment relationship experience with their caregivers (Bartholomew & Horowitz, 1991). Researchers within social psychology has conducted various researches to measure romantic attachment styles and to investigates the effect of early attachment experience on romantic relationships using self-report questionnaires that explores people’s feelings, behaviours and attitudes in their respective intimate relationships (Bernier & Matte-Gagné 2011). Hazan and Shaver (1988) conducted a study using self-report questionnaires to investigate if the different childhood attachment patterns reflects in adulthood relationships (with a sample of 620 participants consisting of 415 females and 205 males with mean age of 36 years). Findings from this study showed that there was a correlation between adulthood romantic relationship and early attachment experiences. Lovers who were classed as secure described their relationship to be happy, friendly and trusting, while ambivalent lovers expressed a belief that romantic relationship consist of jealousy, obsession and extreme sexual attraction. On the other hand, avoidant lovers described their relationship with feelings of unstable emotions, jealousy and fear of intimacy. However, Hazan and shaver (1988) study had issues such gender bias as more females than males took part in the study which makes it difficult to generalise findings from this study to entire population. Nevertheless, findings from this study was supported by Deborah Cohn et al., (1992) study whose findings showed that couples who both experienced early insecure attachment relationship reported more conflicts and less positive interaction between them. Furthermore, Roisman, Collins, W. A., Sroufe, L. A., & Egeland, B. (2005) measured the security of romantic relationships using a sample of 45 couples who were engaged (using Current Relationship Interview) and findings from this study showed a correlation between security with partner and early attachment security which suggested that early attachment experiences can influence people’s perception of love and relationship with partner, supporting Hazan and Shaver (1988) study. Fraley and Shaver (2000) conducted a review on attachment and romantic relationships study originally conducted by Hazan and Shaver (1998). Findings from this review showed that influence of individual differences, evolution, continuity and change of attachment security in adulthood on romantic relationships was not addressed in detail by Hazan and Shaver (1998) study. Hence, these influences were considered to need further clarification in future studies.

Evidence has revealed that it is not only attachment relationship a child has with his or her primary care giver that affects later relationships, however other mediating factors such as economic, social support and cultural values they have been exposed to can also influence how they form relationships in future. Weinfield, Whaley, & Egeland (2000) conducted a study that investigated the representation and stability of attachment security using 57 young adults who were considered to be at high risk due to socio-economic factors (poverty). Findings from this study showed that there was no significant continuity between infant attachment and adult attachment as most of the participants transitioned to insecurity instead. Findings from this study also showed that the continuity and discontinuity in classification of attachment relationship from infant to adolescence age between various groups of participants was due to their life experiences (family functioning, maternal depression and abuse). This study was supported by Fraley (2002) research, who suggested that while future relationships can be influenced by early attachment relationship experience, new experiences can also over ride an individual’s early experience as well influence his or beliefs about relationships in general. However, these studies have issues with generalisability because of the sample used (as participants involved were mostly people who were considered to be high risk due to their background).

Conclusively, attachment relationship is a sustaining emotional bond between a child and a primary care giver with whom the child uses as a safe base to explore his or her environment. According to Bowlby (1980), the nature of attachment relationship a child has with their primary care giver is what results in beliefs and expectations (also known as the internal working model) which the child develops about self, relationships and the world. Using the strange situation test Mary Ainsworth and Bell (1970) found out that children can be either securely or insecurely attached to their primary care giver. The security of attachment a child has experienced early in life can affect their later relationships. Studies has shown that children who were securely attached to their care givers in their early childhood are more competent socially with their peers and have a healthy romantic relationship in adulthood. However, further evidence has revealed that it is not only attachment relationship a child has with his or her primary care giver that affects later relationships, rather other mediating factors such as economy, social support and cultural values they have been exposed to, can also influence how they form relationships in future. Hence, when investigating the effect of early attachment experience on later relationships, it will be useful to consider other factors that can also influence later relationships as attachment relationships can also change due to new experiences.